27 rarest and most endangered doves and pigeons in the world

The Negros fruit dove, Sulu bleeding-heart, and Mindoro bleeding-heart are among the rarest doves and pigeons in the world, with only a handful of individuals possibly surviving in the wild – if at all. Recent decades have seen no confirmed sightings of some of these species, and while hope remains, their rediscovery would require both luck and intensive fieldwork.

This report presents an overview of the rarest and most endangered members of the dove and pigeon family (Columbidae), progressing from those with larger but shrinking populations to those already perilously close to extinction. Some species remain overlooked despite alarming declines; others have become so rare that entire generations of birdwatchers and researchers have never seen them in the wild. By documenting these species now, while they can still be found, we aim to raise awareness, encourage conservation action, and remind readers that recovery is still possible, but only with urgent and sustained effort.

Sao Tome green pigeon (Treron sanctithomae)

• Conservation status: Endangered.
• Estimated population: 20,000-60,000 mature individuals.
• Range and habitat: Endemic to Sao Tome Island; found in primary and mature secondary forest from sea level up to 1,800 m, most common above 300 m.
• Threats: Intense hunting pressure, habitat degradation, agricultural expansion, logging, and infrastructure development.

The Sao Tome green pigeon is a canopy-feeding frugivore endemic to the forests of Sao Tome Island, where it remains relatively common in remote areas but has vanished from much of the accessible lowlands, particularly in the drier northeast. Its current population is estimated at 20,000-60,000 mature individuals, but surveys confirm strong declines in more accessible areas due to unsustainable hunting. It feeds primarily on fruit, especially figs, and makes seasonal elevational movements in response to food availability. The species occurs in both old-growth and mature secondary forests, and is occasionally found in plantations near forest edges.

Hunting represents the most severe threat: large numbers can be taken in a single outing, and the species is targeted both for subsistence and commercial sale. Its tendency to gather around fruiting trees makes it particularly vulnerable. Habitat degradation from timber extraction and expanding agriculture, especially in northern Sao Tome, further restricts its range. Although it is legally protected and part of its range lies within the Sao Tome Obo Natural Park, enforcement is limited. Ongoing conservation projects such as ECOFAC6 support forest management and biodiversity protection, but further efforts are needed to regulate hunting, raise awareness, and preserve key forest areas across the island.

Wetar ground dove (Pampusana hoedtii)

• Conservation status: Endangered.
• Estimated population: 1,500-6,000 mature individuals.
• Range and habitat: Found on Wetar, West Timor, and Timor-Leste; prefers lowland monsoon forest, especially along streams and in gorges, generally below 250 m.
• Threats: Habitat destruction, hunting, trapping, illegal logging, and mining activities.

The Wetar ground dove is a secretive, terrestrial pigeon of Southeast Asia’s Lesser Sunda Islands, where it is restricted to fragmented lowland forest in Wetar, West Timor, and parts of Timor-Leste. Formerly known from few specimens, recent surveys in 2008-2009 confirmed its presence in good numbers on Wetar, including flocks of up to 40 birds and an estimated over 100 individuals in several gorges and gallery forests. However, it remains rare elsewhere, with only sporadic records from Timor-Leste and West Timor over recent decades. Global population estimates range from 1,500 to 6,000 mature individuals, but rapid declines are suspected due to continued habitat loss and poaching.

The species forages on the ground for fruit, including figs, and nests or calls from the canopy, often near streams in undisturbed forest. It is particularly vulnerable to hunting because of its tame behavior and preference for low elevations. While Wetar still holds significant forest cover due to its rugged terrain, logging, gold mining, plantation expansion, and road-building are growing threats. On Timor, extensive deforestation, grazing, and fire have degraded much of the remaining habitat, and hunting is widespread. Protection is currently weak: the Bekau Huhun Nature Reserve may support some birds but excludes key forest zones. Further surveys and the creation of well-enforced protected areas are urgently needed, especially in Wetar and Gunung Timau, to preserve the remaining populations of this increasingly threatened dove.

Maroon pigeon (Columba thomensis)

• Conservation status: Endangered.
• Estimated population: 2,600-3,700 mature individuals.
• Range and habitat: Endemic to Sao Tome Island; found in primary and mature secondary forests from lowland valleys to high-altitude slopes.
• Threats: Intense hunting, forest degradation, limited range, and habitat loss in accessible areas.

The maroon pigeon or Sao Tome olive pigeon is a large, fruit-eating forest pigeon found only on Sao Tome Island in the Gulf of Guinea. Its distribution covers the central massif and several river valleys extending into the southeast and southwest of the island, but it is largely absent from the more accessible northeastern region. Estimated at 2,600-3,700 mature individuals, the species typically occurs at low densities and shows seasonal shifts in distribution following fruiting trees. It is most abundant in primary forest but also uses secondary forest and, to a lesser extent, forest edge plantations.

Hunting is the primary threat to the species, particularly in areas near roads and villages. Its large size, tameness, and predictable movements around fruiting trees make it a frequent target for subsistence hunters. Though hunting is seasonally regulated and the species benefits from partial protection within the Sao Tome Obo Natural Park, enforcement remains limited. Habitat degradation from timber extraction and agricultural intensification further contributes to range contraction. Conservation efforts under programs like ECOFAC6 have improved forest management capacity, but reducing hunting pressure through community awareness, law enforcement, and research on ecological needs is critical for the species’ long-term survival.

Comoro green pigeon (Treron griveaudi)

• Conservation status: Endangered.
• Estimated population: 1,000-2,499 mature individuals.
• Range and habitat: Endemic to Moheli, Comoros; found in humid evergreen forest and adjacent secondary growth.
• Threats: Habitat loss, poaching, invasive plant species, introduced predators, and potential climate change vulnerability.

The Comoro green pigeon is a canopy-dwelling frugivore restricted to the high-elevation evergreen forests of Moheli Island in the Comoros. Formerly more widespread across the archipelago, it now survives only in increasingly fragmented habitat, primarily within the island’s forested interior. Its population is estimated at 1,000-2,499 mature individuals, and although precise trends are lacking, the species is believed to be in decline due to ongoing habitat degradation, illegal poaching, and the spread of invasive plant species that suppress native vegetation.

Despite being legally protected, the species receives little active conservation support. Forest cover has been heavily reduced by subsistence agriculture, logging, and underplanting, with only about 5% of dense humid forest remaining by the mid-1990s. Invasive plants such as Syzygium jambos, Lantana camara, and Clidemia hirta continue to degrade its habitat, while introduced rats may pose a threat to nesting success. With its range already confined to higher elevations, the species may also be vulnerable to future climate shifts. Conservation priorities include habitat protection, population monitoring, enforcement against hunting, and the creation of a forest reserve in the island’s interior.

Timor green pigeon (Treron psittaceus)

• Conservation status: Endangered.
• Estimated population: 660-2,000 mature individuals.
• Range and habitat: Endemic to Timor-Leste, West Timor, and nearby islands; inhabits lowland monsoon and dry forest up to 1,000 m.
• Threats: Intense hunting, severe habitat loss, and local extinctions across its former range.

The Timor green pigeon is a rare and declining species of lowland forest, now largely restricted to fragmented patches in Timor-Leste. Although formerly widespread across Timor and nearby islands such as Semau, Atauro, and Rote, the species has disappeared from many historical sites. Its current population is estimated at 660-2,000 mature individuals, with the largest remaining numbers likely found in Nino Konis Santana National Park in eastern Timor-Leste. In this stronghold, flocks of up to 140 birds have been reported in the past, though recent encounter rates suggest a slight decline.

The species is infrequently recorded, due to both its quiet habits and declining numbers. It is highly dependent on fruiting fig trees and may move seasonally in search of food. On Rote Island, the Timor green pigeon is likely close to local extinction, with no confirmed records since 2013 despite multiple survey efforts. Hunting is the primary threat throughout its range: local hunters are familiar with the species and actively target it, often imitating its call to lure flocks. Habitat loss from deforestation and agricultural expansion, especially in West Timor where only small forest remnants remain, further compounds the pressure. Although it is nominally protected within national parks, enforcement is weak and all remaining habitat is accessible to hunters. Targeted surveys, hunting restrictions, and forest protection are urgently needed to safeguard the species before further local extirpations occur.

Purple quail-dove (Geotrygon purpurata)

• Conservation status: Endangered.
• Estimated population: 600-1,700 mature individuals.
• Range and habitat: Choco region (Colombia and NW Ecuador); found in wet foothill forest (200-1,100 m).
• Threats: Habitat loss (logging, agriculture, mining), hunting, habitat fragmentation.

The purple quail-dove is a shy, terrestrial species of the Choco bioregion, inhabiting dense lowland and montane forests between 200 and 1,100 meters. It is found in scattered locations across western Colombia and north-western Ecuador, but remains rare and patchily distributed throughout. Most recent records come from a small number of protected areas like Bilsa (Ecuador) and Pangan (Colombia), though even these face threats from encroachment and deforestation. The species forages on the forest floor, likely feeding on seeds and invertebrates, and is often detected by its distinctive single-note call.

The global population is estimated at 600-1,700 mature individuals, with subpopulations believed to be extremely small – likely no more than 50 mature birds each. Although deforestation rates across its range are relatively low (under 2% over three generations), the cumulative pressures of habitat degradation, gold mining, coca production, and localized hunting are causing a continuing decline. Many historical localities have already been deforested. Conservation efforts must prioritize protecting remaining forest tracts, especially in and around existing reserves, and strengthening legal protections against hunting and habitat encroachment.

Blue-headed quail-dove (Starnoenas cyanocephala)

• Conservation status: Endangered.
• Estimated population: 500-1,500 mature individuals.
• Range and habitat: Endemic to Cuba; inhabits lowland forests and swampy areas, especially in Zapata Swamp, La Guira, and Guanahacabibes Peninsula.
• Threats: Hunting, invasive predators, habitat degradation, and hurricane damage.

The blue-headed quail-dove is a striking, terrestrial pigeon found only in Cuba, where it has suffered widespread decline and local extinctions due to habitat loss and intensive hunting. Formerly common and widespread, it is now largely restricted to a few protected areas such as Zapata Swamp, La Guira National Park, and the Guanahacabibes Peninsula, with smaller, fragmented subpopulations elsewhere. Although historically estimated at 600-1,700 mature individuals, a projected decline over the last two decades suggests the population is now closer to 500-1,500 mature birds.

Despite being protected under Cuban law and present in several reserves, enforcement is weak and illegal hunting persists, especially using drop traps baited with orange seeds. Predation by introduced mammals further threatens nest success, while hurricanes have periodically devastated key habitats like Zapata. In response, the Proyecto PAIZ conservation program has led efforts in monitoring, education, and in establishing a captive population from confiscated birds. While some local densities appear promising, the overall trend remains negative. Strengthened law enforcement, habitat restoration, and continued public awareness are critical for the survival of this unique and emblematic species.

Polynesian imperial pigeon (Ducula aurorae)

• Conservation status: Endangered.
• Estimated population: 570-1,200 mature individuals.
• Range and habitat: Endemic to French Polynesia (Makatea, possibly extinct on Tahiti); found in native and regenerating forests, secondary habitats, gardens.
• Threats: Habitat loss, potential resumption of mining, Swamp Harrier colonization, introduced predators.

The Polynesian imperial pigeon is a large fruit dove now confined almost entirely to Makatea in the Tuamotu Archipelago, French Polynesia. Once present on Tahiti and possibly Moorea, it is now likely extinct across the Society Islands. A 2009 survey estimated the population on Makatea at just over 1,200 individuals, with a mature population between 570 and 1,200 birds. This increase from earlier estimates reflects reduced hunting pressure, cessation of phosphate mining, and natural forest regeneration. The species has proven resilient, expanding into secondary forest and even garden habitats, and now plays a key role in native forest recovery as a seed disperser.

Despite this positive trend, the species remains at risk. New mining proposals and infrastructure developments could reverse recent gains, leading to habitat degradation or destruction. The potential colonization of Makatea by the swamp harrier (Circus approximans), a predator linked to the species’ extinction on other islands, poses a severe and imminent threat. Predation by rats and cats may also affect nests and juveniles. Conservation priorities include continued habitat protection, local engagement to report invasive species, preventing mining resurgence, and monitoring population trends. Should Makatea remain undisturbed, the species may warrant future downlisting, but its survival hinges on vigilance and preventive action.

White-fronted quail-dove (Geotrygon leucometopia)

• Conservation status: Endangered.
• Estimated population: 300-1,200 mature individuals.
• Range and habitat: Endemic to the Dominican Republic; found in montane moist forest and coffee plantations in the Cordillera Central and Sierra de Baoruco.
• Threats: Habitat loss and degradation, hunting, introduced predators, and limited range.

The white-fronted quail-dove is a rare ground-dwelling pigeon endemic to the highland forests of the Dominican Republic. It persists in the Cordillera Central and Sierra de Baoruco, though it is now thought to be extirpated from the Sierra de Neiba. Historical records from Haiti remain unconfirmed and the species is unlikely to survive there due to widespread deforestation. The population is estimated at 300-1,200 mature individuals, based on sparse sightings and likely limited occupancy within its already small range. Although locally still fairly common in parts of the Sierra de Baoruco, it is known from only a handful of sites.

This elusive dove inhabits dense montane forest and adjacent shaded coffee plantations, generally between 1,000 and 1,800 m, though occasional records come from sea level. It forages on the ground for seeds and invertebrates, sometimes using trails, but may perch several meters above the ground. The population is suspected to be undergoing a rapid decline of up to 49%, driven by forest loss, hunting, and introduced predators such as feral cats and mongooses. Although legal hunting was banned in 1978 and several protected areas have been designated within its range, enforcement is often weak, and habitat degradation from agricultural expansion continues. Targeted surveys, stronger enforcement of hunting laws, and better management of protected areas are urgently needed to secure the species’ future.

Santa Cruz ground dove (Pampusana sanctaecrucis)

• Conservation status: Endangered.
• Estimated population: Fewer than 800 mature individuals.
• Range and habitat: Tinakula (Solomon Islands) and Espiritu Santo (Vanuatu); old-growth and regenerating forest from 60 to 1,000 m elevation.
• Threats: Volcanic eruptions, invasive species, hunting, habitat loss, illegal trade, and competition from other dove species.

The Santa Cruz ground dove is a little-known species with a highly fragmented range in the southwestern Pacific, currently confirmed only on Tinakula Island in the Solomon Islands and Espiritu Santo in Vanuatu. Formerly more widespread, it has disappeared from most historical locations and likely persists in extremely low numbers. A catastrophic volcanic eruption on Tinakula in 2017 decimated the island’s population, which had already been impacted by trapping for the cagebird trade earlier the same year. A subsequent survey found just 15 individuals (11 males and 4 females) raising serious concerns about the viability of this remnant population. An additional 109 individuals were confiscated and are now held in captivity in the Solomon Islands.

On Espiritu Santo, the species is even rarer, with only scattered records over the past several decades and no recent confirmed sightings from most potential habitats. It occupies montane and lowland rainforest, often in rugged or remote areas, and is believed to forage on the ground but roost in trees. Introduced predators such as rats and cats, along with invasive ants and vines, pose major threats across its range, while habitat loss from logging, agriculture, and land clearing continues. Hunting is also a concern, especially in Vanuatu. Although a community conservation area has been established on Mount Tabwemasana and some biosecurity and habitat management initiatives are in place, no comprehensive recovery plan exists. Further surveys, stricter protection, and a coordinated captive breeding and reintroduction program are urgently needed to prevent this species from slipping closer to extinction.

Tawitawi brown dove (Phapitreron cinereiceps)

• Conservation status: Endangered.
• Estimated population: Fewer than 500 mature individuals.
• Range and habitat: Endemic to Tawi-Tawi Island, southern Philippines; inhabits lowland forest, forest edge, and degraded secondary forest.
• Threats: Logging, agricultural expansion, oil-palm and cassava plantations, mining, hunting, trapping, and ineffective law enforcement.

The Tawitawi brown dove is a poorly known forest pigeon endemic to the Sulu Archipelago in the southern Philippines, with confirmed recent records only from Tawi-Tawi Island. Although it was once also recorded on neighboring Sanga-Sanga, it is now likely extinct there due to total forest loss. On Tawitawi, it has been documented from a handful of sites, including Tarawakan and Languyan, where it was still found in 2012. The species appears to tolerate heavily logged and degraded forest and is often more easily detected in secondary growth and edge habitats than in primary forest. It is believed to persist up to elevations of 500 m, the island’s maximum.

Despite this habitat tolerance, the dove’s population is estimated at fewer than 500 mature individuals, as of 2025, and ongoing habitat degradation continues to drive a very rapid decline. Logging, land conversion for oil-palm and cassava, and small-scale wood harvesting remain widespread across the island. Mining has emerged as a new threat, particularly near Languyan. Hunting and trapping pressure are also considerable, while weak law enforcement and military conflict have limited effective conservation. Although some awareness campaigns and survey work were initiated in the 2000s, no protected areas currently exist on Tawi-Tawi. Conservationists emphasize the urgent need to identify and protect remaining habitats, assess the species’ tolerance to further degradation, and involve local communities in future actions.

Palau ground dove (Pampusana canifrons)

• Conservation status: Endangered.
• Estimated population: Fewer than 500 mature individuals.
• Range and habitat: Endemic to Palau; found in dense forest on major islands and limestone islets, especially the Rock Islands.
• Threats: Invasive predators, habitat loss from development, human disturbance, and potential introduction of Brown Tree Snake.

The Palau ground dove is a secretive forest pigeon endemic to the islands of Palau in the western Pacific. Once believed to occur widely across Babeldaob, Peleliu, Angaur, and the Rock Islands, it is now extremely rarely seen, with recent surveys recording few to no individuals. Early estimates from the late 1970s suggested a population of around 500 individuals, but more recent surveys in 1991 and 2005 found only nine and four individuals, respectively – too few to generate reliable density estimates. Ongoing monthly surveys since 2017 have failed to record any individuals in the Rock Islands, and the species is now seldom seen even on Ulong Island, a former stronghold.

Due to its elusive nature, sparse vocalizations, and inaccessible habitat, the Palau ground dove remains difficult to study. However, evidence indicates a continued population decline, with the total likely now well under 500 mature individuals. Primary threats include introduced predators such as rats and cats, which prey on eggs and chicks, and habitat degradation from road-building, agriculture, and tourism infrastructure. Forest cover within the species’ range declined by over 4% between 2000 and 2012, and further clearance has occurred since. While some surveys and conservation discussions are ongoing, no targeted protection or invasive species control efforts are in place. Preventing the introduction of the brown tree snake and implementing predator control and habitat protection are urgent priorities for preserving the remaining wild population.

Tuxtla quail-dove (Zentrygon carrikeri)

• Conservation status: Endangered.
• Estimated population: 200-700 mature individuals.
• Range and habitat: Endemic to the Sierra de los Tuxtlas, Veracruz, Mexico; humid evergreen and cloud forests from 350 to 1,700 m elevation.
• Threats: Severe habitat loss from logging, agriculture, and pasture conversion; indirect disturbance from hunting dogs.

The Tuxtla quail-dove is a micro-endemic species restricted to the volcanic highlands of the Sierra de los Tuxtlas in southeastern Mexico, where it inhabits humid tropical and cloud forests. Once considered fairly common in suitable habitat, it now survives in fragmented populations on the volcanoes San Martin, San Martin Pajapan, and Santa Marta. Though elusive, it remains locally common where primary forest persists. However, only an estimated 200-700 mature individuals remain, with rapid declines suspected due to ongoing forest loss. Recent observations confirm its presence up to 1,700 m, and while it strongly prefers undisturbed forest, it can use adjacent secondary vegetation and restored areas.

Adults are highly sensitive to disturbance and show prolonged absences after nest disruption. Predators include opossums, snakes, and forest raptors. While direct hunting is now minimal, the species is often flushed by hunting dogs targeting other game. A significant portion of its original habitat has been lost by 1986, over 80% had disappeared from Volcan San Martin alone. Despite inclusion in the Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve and promising local monitoring initiatives, much of its range remains unprotected or under threat. Community-based programs have proven effective for research and education, making this dove both a conservation flagship and a symbol of regional biodiversity. Further surveys, stronger reserve enforcement, and habitat restoration are essential to ensure its long-term survival.

White-fronted ground dove (Pampusana kubaryi)

• Conservation status: Endangered.
• Estimated population: 200-300 mature individuals.
• Range and habitat: Endemic to Pohnpei and Chuuk (Federated States of Micronesia); found in dense ravines, upland forest, mangroves, and degraded lowland habitats.
• Threats: Habitat loss, hunting, invasive predators (cats, rats), possible snake introduction.

The white-fronted ground dove or Caroline Islands ground dove is a shy, terrestrial species restricted to the islands of Pohnpei and Chuuk. It was once considered more common, with an estimated 841 individuals on Pohnpei in the 1980s, but has declined steeply since. A 1994 survey showed a 50% drop on Pohnpei, and only five individuals were recorded during a 2012 island-wide survey. Today, the Pohnpei population may number fewer than 80 birds. Chuuk may now hold the larger subpopulation, estimated at 236 individuals as of 2020. Across both islands, the species likely numbers between 200 and 300 mature individuals. The species favors dense, brushy ravines, lowland forest, mangroves, and coastal strand vegetation, and feeds on seeds, worms, and snails.

Habitat degradation from agriculture, particularly the spread of sakau (kava) plantations in upland forest, has fragmented remaining native forest, especially on Pohnpei. Hunting persists using catapults, and nest predation by invasive cats and rats is likely. On Chuuk, forest remnants are very limited, and further decline is expected if pressures continue. The species may persist better in small outer islets with lower human activity, though such areas are also vulnerable to invasive predators. Conservation actions to date include delineated watershed reserves and small community-managed areas, but no intensive protection is in place. Without updated surveys, predator management, and forest preservation, especially at higher elevations and on predator-free islets, the species is at serious risk of continued decline.

Marquesas ground dove (Pampusana rubescens)

• Conservation status: Endangered.
• Estimated population: Fewer than 250 mature individuals.
• Range and habitat: Endemic to Hatutu and Fatu Huku, Marquesas Islands, French Polynesia; found in wooded and shrubby areas, coastal to summit elevations.
• Threats: Drought, climate change, risk of cat introduction.

The Marquesas ground dove is a highly localized species now restricted to just two small, cat-free islets in the Marquesas Islands – Hatutu and Fatu Huku. Once more widespread, it was likely extirpated from larger islands due to predation by introduced cats. On Hatutu, population estimates have fluctuated widely over the past decades, ranging from under 200 to over 1,000 individuals depending on survey year and weather conditions, particularly drought. On Fatu Huku, the population is much smaller, estimated at only a few pairs as recently as 2011. Due to the limited range, small overall numbers, and population fluctuations, the total number of mature individuals is cautiously placed between 50 and 250.

The species inhabits scrubland, wooded valleys, and groves of Pisonia grandis, feeding primarily on seeds. On Hatutu, it prefers the plateau and is most abundant in areas of mixed tussock grassland and subscrub. Although the long-term population trend is thought to be relatively stable, climate variability, especially droughts exacerbated by El Nino or La Nina events, remains a significant threat. There is no active management on Hatutu despite its protected status. Ensuring both islands remain free of introduced predators, continued monitoring, and assessing the feasibility of reintroducing the species to other cat-free islands such as Mohotani are high conservation priorities.

Nuku Hiva imperial pigeon (Ducula galeata)

• Conservation status: Endangered.
• Estimated population: 200-250 mature individuals.
• Range and habitat: Endemic to the Marquesas Islands (Nuku Hiva and Ua Huka); found in wooded valleys, secondary forest, plantations.
• Threats: Habitat degradation, introduced predators and plants, potential resurgence of poaching, disease.

The Nuku Hiva imperial pigeon, also known as the Marquesan imperial pigeon, is a large fruit dove endemic to the Marquesas Islands in French Polynesia. Once heavily hunted and confined to a few valleys on Nuku Hiva, its population has slowly recovered thanks to focused conservation efforts, including translocations to Ua Huka in 2000 and 2003. As of the most recent assessments, the total population is estimated at over 300 individuals, with around 200-250 mature birds. The species has expanded its range on Nuku Hiva, and the reintroduced population on Ua Huka has grown steadily, though it remains small. It inhabits forested valleys and edges of plantations, feeding on native and introduced fruits such as guava, and typically lays only a single egg per clutch, making population recovery naturally slow.

While poaching has declined following education campaigns, the species remains vulnerable due to its small population size and ongoing habitat degradation. Invasive plants like Miconia calvescens and pines, along with feral animals and frequent fires, continue to reduce habitat quality. Introduced predators such as cats and rats may prey on eggs or nestlings, and avian diseases like Plasmodium relictum are a growing concern. Conservation actions have included local outreach, control of invasive species, and the protection of reintroduction sites. Continued habitat restoration, predator management, and potential further translocations to diversify the population are critical to securing the species’ future.

Blue-eyed ground dove (Columbina cyanopis)

• Conservation status: Critically Endangered.
• Estimated population: Fewer than 200 mature individuals.
• Range and habitat: Interior Brazil (Minas Gerais and historically Mato Grosso); campo cerrado grasslands.
• Threats: Habitat destruction, agriculture, fire, grazing, invasive grasses, possible climate change.

The blue-eyed ground dove is a rarely seen Brazilian endemic known historically from scattered records across several central states, but recently confirmed only in Minas Gerais. Once thought possibly extinct, it was rediscovered in 2015 and again in 2016, with up to 12 individuals recorded and photographed. A second population was found in 2019 in Botumirim State Park. The total known population remains extremely small, likely under 200 mature individuals, and continues to face pressure from accelerating habitat loss. This terrestrial dove inhabits isolated patches of campo cerrado, a grassland ecosystem under severe threat from agricultural expansion, especially for soybean, eucalyptus, and pasture development.

The species’ historical rarity remains poorly understood, but recent surveys suggest that habitat loss and degradation, driven by mechanized agriculture, annual burning, overgrazing, and invasive grasses, have likely contributed to its current decline. Most of the original cerrado habitat has already been transformed, and climate change poses an additional long-term risk. Conservation efforts are underway: a private reserve was established in 2018 to protect the Botumirim population, followed by the creation of Botumirim State Park. SAVE Brasil is leading research, awareness campaigns, and a species action plan to locate and safeguard remaining populations. Further fieldwork is urgently needed to assess other potentially suitable but unsurveyed sites across the dove’s historical range.

Tooth-billed pigeon (Didunculus strigirostris)

• Conservation status: Critically Endangered.
• Estimated population: Fewer than 200 mature individuals.
• Range and habitat: Endemic to Samoa (Upolu and Savai’i); upland and lowland primary and secondary forest.
• Threats: Habitat loss, cyclones, invasive predators, accidental hunting.

The tooth-billed pigeon, or manumea, is Samoa’s national bird and one of the world’s most evolutionarily distinct pigeons. Endemic to the islands of Upolu and Savai’i, it has experienced a severe population decline since the 1980s due to habitat loss, cyclones, invasive species, and accidental hunting. Surveys since 2000 have yielded only a handful of confirmed sightings, and the population is currently estimated at fewer than 200 mature individuals. Recent habitat suitability models combining historical and modern data identify forest-rich areas along the central east-west axis of Upolu, as well as low-elevation forests on Savai’i, as the most likely remaining habitats. Although the species was once thought to have retreated to upland refuges, there is little evidence of such a shift; instead, pigeons may exhibit nomadic behavior in response to seasonal fruiting of preferred food trees.

The species inhabits both primary and secondary rainforest, feeding on large native seeds and fruits with its distinctive parrot-like bill. While fully protected under Samoan law, enforcement is limited, and hunting of other pigeons continues to threaten tooth-billed pigeons due to mistaken identity. Surveys using acoustic detection have produced inconclusive results, as its call resembles that of the more common Pacific imperial pigeon (Ducula pacifica). Conservation actions underway include rat control, forest restoration, awareness campaigns, and local community engagement. Future efforts should prioritize areas with consistent habitat suitability across models, especially in Uafato-Tiavea and central Upolu, while avoiding overreliance on acoustic detections until verified by sound analysis.

Grenada dove (Leptotila wellsi)

• Conservation status: Critically Endangered.
• Estimated population: Fewer than 250 individuals.
• Range and habitat: Endemic to Grenada; dry and mixed forest patches at Mount Hartman and Perseverance-Beausejour.
• Threats: Hurricanes, habitat loss, invasive predators, urban development.

The Grenada dove is a highly localized Caribbean endemic surviving in just two fragmented populations: one in the Mount Hartman Estate and National Park, and another in the west coast areas of Perseverance, Beausejour, and Woodford. Surveys using both territory mapping and distance sampling consistently estimate the total population at fewer than 250 individuals. Habitat degradation from residential development, compounded by powerful hurricanes, like Ivan in 2004, has caused major population losses, particularly on the west coast. Despite habitat protection in key sites, only 40% of known territories fall within reserves. The dove favors thorny leguminous trees and dry forests with little ground cover, and breeds primarily during the rainy season, although some males call year-round in wetter habitats.

The species is highly sensitive to changes in food availability, cover, and water during the dry season, and may occupy regenerating habitat if leguminous vegetation returns. However, its long-term survival is undermined by the presence of introduced predators, especially mongooses, cats, and rats, with over 1,000 mongooses trapped in one control program alone. Post-hurricane declines are linked to both habitat loss and increased predation. Conservationists recommend a combined monitoring approach using distance sampling and targeted mapping, habitat restoration, fencing, predator removal, and strict land-use control near existing populations. Without sustained protection and management, this species remains at grave risk of extinction.

Purple-winged ground dove (Paraclaravis geoffroyi)

• Conservation status: Critically Endangered.
• Estimated population: Fewer than 250 individuals.
• Range and habitat: Atlantic Forest of Brazil, Paraguay, and Argentina; found in bamboo-rich humid forest from sea level to 2,300 m.
• Threats: Habitat loss, bamboo fragmentation, trade history, lack of current records.

The purple-winged ground dove is a bamboo specialist from the Atlantic Forest, now teetering on the edge of extinction. Once observed in flocks of up to 100 birds, the species has all but disappeared from the wild, with no confirmed photographs or audio recordings since the 1980s. The last reliable specimen was collected in 1985, and although unconfirmed sightings occurred as recently as 2017 in Argentina, models place the current extinction probability between 14-33%, depending on data quality. Like its Andean relative, the maroon-chested ground dove (Paraclaravis mondetoura), it likely follows the irregular seeding cycles of bamboos, making it naturally elusive. Habitat fragmentation has likely disrupted these nomadic movements, exacerbating its decline.

In the 1980s, around 150 individuals were kept and successfully bred in captivity by private aviculturists in Brazil. However, restrictive regulations ended these programs, and all captive birds were lost by the mid-1990s. Recently recovered audio from a 1992 captive bird has now been archived, opening the door to targeted playback-assisted surveys. Species distribution modeling highlights two priority regions- Misiones (Argentina) and the Serra do Mar (Brazil) – as the most likely strongholds. The species’ survival may now depend on rediscovery during bamboo masting events and immediate action to establish an ex situ population if individuals are found.

Polynesian ground dove (Pampusana erythroptera)

• Conservation status: Critically Endangered.
• Estimated population: Approximately 150 mature individuals.
• Range and habitat: Southeastern Tuamotu Archipelago (Acteon Group), French Polynesia; found in coastal and atoll forest.
• Threats: Invasive predators (rats, cats, ants), habitat degradation, disease, climate events, sea level rise.

The Polynesian ground dove is among the rarest pigeons in the world, now surviving only in a few rodent-free islands in the Tuamotu Archipelago. Once widespread across many Pacific islands, including Tahiti and Moorea, it has vanished from nearly all of its former range due to predation by introduced rats and cats, as well as habitat loss and severe weather. By 2015, a global survey found approximately 190 individuals in the Acteon Group. Encouragingly, a 2020 follow-up by SOP Manu recorded small increases on four islands, with up to 15-20 birds per island, suggesting slow but steady recovery following rat eradication efforts.

The species inhabits dense coastal and atoll forest dominated by Pandanus and Pisonia, and relies on a varied diet including seeds, insects, and fruit. Its reproductive rate is naturally low, and its lack of predator defenses makes it especially vulnerable to invasive species. Although several islands were cleared of rats between 2015-2017, re-invasion remains a constant threat, especially due to visiting boats. Disease, notably avian pox and malaria, has also affected some populations. Conservation actions are ongoing, including habitat restoration, local education, and plans to reintroduce birds to predator-free islands like Temoe. The species is a conservation flagship for Pacific island restoration, but long-term success depends on biosecurity, funding, and continued international collaboration.

Rapa fruit dove (Ptilinopus huttoni)

• Conservation status: Critically Endangered.
• Estimated population: Approximately 160 individuals.
• Range and habitat: Endemic to Rapa Island, French Polynesia; found in montane and valley forest between 40-450 m.
• Threats: Habitat degradation, invasive plants, grazing by goats and cattle, potential predation by rats and cats.

The Rapa fruit dove is confined to the small island of Rapa in the Austral (Tubuai) Islands of French Polynesia. A 2017 survey estimated the total population at 160 individuals, with an inferred 107 mature birds. This represents a 21% decline from the previous survey in 1990, which had estimated 274 individuals. The species primarily inhabits remnant native forest between 40-450 meters elevation, though recent records show it may also forage in pine plantations. While once thought to avoid introduced vegetation, some birds may feed on Psidium cattleianum, though its widespread dominance reduces native plant diversity and overall habitat quality.

The dove faces multiple threats including grazing by goats and cattle, habitat loss through fire and felling, and potential predation by Polynesian rats and feral cats. Although hunting is no longer a major concern, the quality and area of suitable forest have steadily declined. In 2017, a conservation initiative began to restore native forest and control invasive plant species and livestock. Conservation actions moving forward include fencing forest remnants, reducing grazing pressure, monitoring the population, and exploring the feasibility of captive breeding or translocation to safeguard the species from extinction.

Negros bleeding-heart (Gallicolumba keayi)

• Conservation status: Critically Endangered.
• Estimated population: 50-200 individuals in the wild, over 100 in captivity.
• Range and habitat: Endemic to Negros and Panay islands, Philippines; found in closed-canopy forest with dense understorey, 300-1,200 m elevation.
• Threats: Habitat loss, hunting, nest predation, and illegal trade.

The Negros bleeding-heart is a shy, ground-dwelling dove endemic to the Visayan islands of Panay and Negros. Once fairly common on Negros in the 19th century, it has suffered extensive decline due to habitat loss, hunting, and trapping. The most recent wild population estimate, dating back to 1999, suggested 70-400 individuals, but this is now 25 years old and likely an overestimate. More recent distribution modeling shows very limited remaining suitable habitat, especially on Negros, where primary forest has been reduced to small, fragmented patches. On Panay, the species is regularly recorded at Northwest Panay Peninsula Natural Park, including confirmed breeding activity. On Negros, scattered sightings have been documented, including nests and feeding observations between 2004 and 2006 in areas like Mount Talinis and Calinawan.

In captivity, the species has been successfully bred since 2007, with more than 100 individuals now managed by the Talarak Foundation. Breeding techniques have included cross-fostering with Luzon bleeding-hearts and soft-release reintroduction plans are underway for southern Negros. Captive birds show typical columbid breeding patterns, with fledging in around two weeks. In the wild, the species prefers dense understorey and canopy. Nesting has been recorded in bird’s-nest ferns and epiphytes close to the ground, making nests highly vulnerable to predation. Despite ongoing education and community efforts, hunting remains a significant threat, and no reliable updated wild population size is currently available. Intensive field surveys and expanded habitat protection are urgently needed to support the species’ long-term survival.

Silvery pigeon (Columba argentina)

• Conservation status: Critically Endangered.
• Estimated population: Fewer than 50 mature individuals
• Range and habitat: Coastal and offshore islands of Indonesia and Malaysia; mangroves and coastal forests.
• Threats: Habitat loss, hunting, online trade, invasive species, misidentification.

Once feared extinct, the silvery pigeon was rediscovered through photographs taken in 2008 and 2010 on islands off western Sumatra. Since then, multiple observations (including online trade posts from 2021) confirm its continued but precarious survival. At least 10 individuals were recorded in trade within a three-month span, representing over 20% of the estimated population. This suggests the global population may be slightly higher than feared, though still dangerously small. Identification challenges, particularly confusion with the pied imperial pigeon (Ducula bicolor), may have obscured previous surveys.

The species inhabits mangroves and lowland forests on small, often remote islands. Although heavily forested areas remain in some parts of its range, threats have intensified: habitat conversion, poaching, and growing trade interest, including internationally, now compound its vulnerability. Despite protection in Indonesia and Malaysia, it is not listed under CITES, leaving international trade unregulated. Conservation priorities include urgent field surveys, habitat protection on islands like Simeulue and Lingga, and formal inclusion in international trade controls to curb demand from collectors.

Mindoro bleeding-heart (Gallicolumba platenae)

• Conservation status: Critically Endangered.
• Estimated population: Fewer than 100 individuals.
• Range and habitat: Endemic to Mindoro, Philippines; lowland closed-canopy and secondary forest up to 750 m.
• Threats: Deforestation, slash-and-burn agriculture, hunting, accidental trapping, and trade.

The Mindoro bleeding-heart is a ground-dwelling dove endemic to Mindoro Island in the Philippines. Once locally common, the species has nearly vanished, with confirmed records from only a few scattered sites since 1980. The last population estimate from the early 2000s suggested 70-400 individuals, but with an inferred decline of 30-49% over the last two decades, the true number may now be significantly lower. This elusive species favors lowland forest with dry, shaded substrates and limestone outcrops, habitats now reduced to a few fragmented tracts in areas like Mount Siburan and Mount Iglit-Baco National Park. Hunting and accidental snaring during dry-season trapping further threaten its survival.

Conservation actions at Mount Siburan have included forest protection within the Sablayan Penal Colony, community-based monitoring, environmental education, and proposed sanctuary designation. While mining has been halted and localized hunting bans introduced, forest degradation, agricultural encroachment, and rattan harvesting continue. The species remains highly threatened, and without renewed surveys, regulation of hunting and forest use, and potentially a captive population, its outlook remains dire. Updated population assessments and a clearer understanding of its breeding ecology are urgently needed to inform recovery efforts.

Sulu bleeding-heart (Gallicolumba menagei)

• Conservation status: Critically Endangered.
• Estimated population: Fewer than 50 individuals.
• Range and habitat: Endemic to the Sulu Archipelago, Philippines (primarily Tawi-Tawi).
• Threats: Extensive habitat destruction, logging, hunting, trapping.

The Sulu bleeding-heart is a little-known ground dove known only from two specimens collected on Tawi-Tawi in 1891. No confirmed sightings have occurred since, though local reports in 1995 suggested the species might have survived until at least the 1970s. Subsequent searches, including extensive surveys in 2009, failed to detect the bird, and no locals or trappers reported familiarity with it. While some forest patches still exist, particularly in mountainous or rugged terrain, they are fragmented, degraded, and under continued threat from logging and conversion to agriculture.

The species was already described as extremely rare in the 1890s, and its decline has likely been accelerated by hunting, trapping, and severe habitat loss. Primary forest on Tawi-Tawi has been largely destroyed, and forest cover continues to shrink, particularly since the 2010s. Any remaining population is presumed to be extremely small and declining. Conservation actions have been minimal due to regional instability, and there are currently no protected areas in the archipelago. The Sulu bleeding-heart remains a high-priority candidate for targeted surveys and emergency habitat protection efforts.

Negros fruit dove (Ptilinopus arcanus)

• Conservation status: Critically Endangered.
• Estimated population: Fewer than 50 individuals.
• Range and habitat: Known only from Mount Kanlaon, Negros Island, Philippines; possibly also Panay Island.
• Threats: Habitat destruction and hunting.

The Negros fruit dove is a small, elusive species known only from a single female specimen collected in 1953 on Mount Kanlaon, Negros Island. Despite multiple ornithological surveys across the decades, no confirmed sightings have been recorded since, though there were unverified local reports in 1985, the 1990s, 2002, and 2008. Some evidence suggests the species could still survive undetected, especially given the extreme shyness of fruit-doves and the lack of survey effort on Panay, a nearby island where several species once thought endemic to Negros have also been rediscovered.

The species’ natural habitat was likely lowland forest, but deforestation may have forced it to higher elevations before its discovery. Its rarity even at the time of its first record, combined with extensive habitat loss for agriculture and charcoal production, along with hunting pressures, make its continued survival uncertain. However, model-based extinction probabilities remain low enough to keep the species listed as Critically Endangered rather than Extinct. It remains a priority species in the Search for Lost Birds campaign, though no confirmed conservation actions beyond early education efforts and surveys have yet succeeded in locating a living individual.

Future outlook

This report is part of an ongoing effort to track and highlight the rarest and most endangered doves and pigeons in the world. While all species listed here are currently recognized as extant, their future is far from guaranteed. Several may already be on the brink of extinction, with no confirmed sightings in recent years. Without renewed surveys and targeted conservation, some of these birds could quietly disappear before ever being rediscovered.

At the same time, a number of species still persist in larger numbers but are facing rapid and continuing declines. The reasons vary, from relentless hunting and trapping to unchecked habitat destruction, but the trajectory is often the same. Declines go unnoticed, and by the time concern turns to action, populations are already critically depleted.

From the Planet of Birds perspective, it is clear that our response must be both urgent and sustained. Rediscoveries can offer hope, but they are not a substitute for long-term protection and habitat recovery. Some species on this list may yet recover, but only if efforts begin now. We call for increased fieldwork, better enforcement of environmental protections, and more direct support for communities living alongside these vulnerable birds.

This list will continue to evolve as new data emerges. Some species may move to safer ground, others may sadly vanish, and new candidates for conservation attention may appear. Our goal remains to document, protect, and, where possible, help restore the populations of these often-overlooked birds before it is too late.