Snowy albatross (Diomedea exulans): Wandering giant of the Southern Ocean

The snowy albatross (Diomedea exulans), also known as the wandering albatross, is one of the largest flying birds, boasting the longest wingspan of any living species, reaching up to 3.7 meters (12.1 feet). A true oceanic wanderer, it inhabits the Southern Ocean, where it spends most of its life soaring effortlessly over vast distances. Highly adapted to a pelagic lifestyle, it relies on dynamic soaring and an exceptional sense of smell to locate food across remote marine environments. However, despite its mastery of the open sea, the species faces mounting threats, including bycatch in longline fisheries, habitat disturbance, and the impacts of climate change.

Discovery

The snowy albatross was first described by Carl Linnaeus in 1758, however, long before its formal classification, early explorers and sailors had documented sightings of large albatrosses in the Southern Ocean. These birds were mentioned in voyage logs as early as the 16th and 17th centuries, with English explorer William Dampier and others noting their remarkable wingspans and soaring abilities. Although these accounts lacked scientific classification, they provide historical evidence of human encounters with the species.

Following Linnaeus, taxonomists continued to refine the classification of albatrosses. The genus Diomedea was traditionally considered to contain only a few species, but revisions over the last century have resulted in multiple taxonomic splits. In 1998, Robertson and Nunn proposed splitting the wandering albatross complex into several species based on morphological and genetic differences. Their work led to the recognition of closely related species, including the Tristan albatross (Diomedea dabbenena), Antipodean albatross (Diomedea antipodensis), and Gibson’s albatross (Diomedea gibsoni), which were previously classified as subspecies of D. exulans.

Genetic studies have further supported these distinctions. In 2004, Burg and Croxall used mitochondrial DNA and microsatellite markers to assess population structure within Diomedea, confirming significant genetic divergence among the taxa in the wandering albatross complex. Their research contributed to the current classification, where D. exulans is recognized as distinct but closely related to species such as D. dabbenena and D. antipodensis.

The snowy albatross belongs to the order Procellariiformes, which includes petrels and shearwaters. It is part of the family Diomedeidae, a group of large seabirds adapted to long-distance flight. While taxonomic revisions have led to the splitting of several former subspecies, D. exulans remains the largest of the great albatrosses.

Identification

The snowy albatross, also known as the wandering albatross, has the largest wingspan of any living bird, averaging 3.1 meters (10.2 feet) and reaching a verified maximum of 3.7 meters (12.1 feet). There are unverified reports of individuals with wingspans up to 4.22 meters (13.8 feet), but such measurements remain questionable. This exceptional wingspan allows the species to glide for long distances with minimal wing flapping, an adaptation crucial for its pelagic lifestyle.

Adults measure 107 to 135 centimeters (3.5 to 4.4 feet) in body length and weigh between 6 to 12.7 kilograms (13.2 to 28 pounds), with males being about 20% heavier than females. This difference in size contributes to slight variations in flight efficiency and foraging behavior between sexes. Males tend to develop whiter plumage with age, while females retain darker wingtips and upper-wing markings. Juveniles are entirely dark brown, gradually transitioning to white over several years. By maturity, most individuals exhibit predominantly white plumage with black flight feathers on the upper wings and black edges on the tail (except in older males, which may have fully white tails).

The species has a large, pale pink bill, which is well-adapted for catching squid and fish at the ocean surface. Its strong, webbed feet, also pink, assist in both swimming and taking off from the water. Like other seabirds, it has a specialized salt gland above the nasal passage, allowing it to excrete excess salt from ingesting seawater. This sometimes leaves a pinkish-yellow stain on the feathers near the bill.

Vocalization

Snowy albatrosses are generally silent at sea but engage in guttural croaks, high-pitched whistles, and rhythmic bill-clapping during courtship and territorial interactions. These vocalizations play an essential role in reinforcing long-term pair bonds.

Range

The snowy albatross exhibits a circumpolar distribution in the Southern Ocean, primarily breeding on subantarctic islands, including South Georgia, the Prince Edward Islands, Crozet Islands, Kerguelen Islands, and Macquarie Island.

Recent studies have revealed significant variations in movement patterns between populations. Albatrosses from the Kerguelen Archipelago undertake extensive migrations during their non-breeding years, often circumnavigating Antarctica multiple times and covering over 120,000 kilometers (75,000 miles) in a single year. In contrast, many individuals from the Crozet Islands remain near their breeding grounds year-round, exhibiting more localized movement patterns. These differences are influenced by wind conditions, foraging strategies, and environmental factors, which also impact their breeding frequency and overall fitness.

While non-breeding individuals typically forage between 30° and 50°S (south latitude), some have been recorded farther north, including off the coasts of Brazil and Namibia. However, such occurrences are rare and usually involve juveniles or storm-displaced individuals.

Migration

The snowy albatross does not follow a fixed migratory pattern but is a highly pelagic seabird that disperses extensively across the Southern Ocean. Some individuals have been tracked traveling over 15,200 kilometers (9,450 miles) between incubation shifts, demonstrating their ability to cover immense distances while foraging. Its movements depend on breeding status, wind conditions, and food availability. While some individuals undertake long-distance movements, others remain closer to breeding colonies, demonstrating flexibility in foraging strategies.

Habitat

The snowy albatross is an entirely pelagic species, spending the majority of its life over the open ocean, only returning to land for breeding. It primarily inhabits the Southern Ocean, preferring waters where surface temperatures range from -2°C to 24°C. It is highly adapted to a marine lifestyle, using dynamic soaring to glide over oceanic winds with minimal energy expenditure. This allows it to cover vast distances without flapping its wings, taking advantage of the strong westerly winds typical of its range. During the breeding season, it nests on subantarctic islands, selecting sites on coastal slopes, ridges, and open plains. These locations provide unobstructed access to wind currents, which are essential for takeoff.

Behavior

The snowy albatross is highly adapted to oceanic life, using dynamic soaring to glide over vast distances with minimal energy expenditure. It can travel thousands of kilometers without landing, taking advantage of strong wind currents in the Southern Ocean. While it is primarily a solitary forager, it occasionally gathers in loose aggregations around abundant food sources.

This species often follows fishing vessels, scavenging discarded fish and offal, and is known to interact with marine mammals, such as whales and dolphins, which drive prey toward the surface. Snowy albatrosses also compete with other seabirds, including petrels, skuas, and giant petrels, particularly when scavenging carrion or fishing discards. These interactions can involve aggressive encounters, such as wing-spreading displays and bill-clashing to establish dominance over food resources.

Snowy albatrosses exhibit strong natal site fidelity, returning to the same island to breed throughout their lives. They form monogamous pairs, reinforcing their long-term bonds with elaborate courtship displays, which include synchronized movements, bill-clapping, sky-pointing, and vocalizations. These ritualized behaviors play a crucial role in maintaining pair stability and ensuring breeding success.

Breeding

Snowy albatrosses breed biennially, as chick-rearing requires an eleven-month cycle, leaving adults unable to breed every year. Breeding begins at around nine years of age, although younger birds start returning to nesting islands at five years old to practice courtship behaviors.

Nesting begins in November, with older males arriving first, often before the previous season’s young have fully fledged. Eggs are laid between late December and early January, with each pair producing a single egg per breeding attempt. The large, mud-built nests are constructed on coastal slopes, ridges, and open plains, often within patchy vegetation such as tussock grass, ferns, and moss terraces. In some colonies, nests have been recorded at elevations exceeding 300 meters above sea level. Females shape the nest, while males collect the nesting materials.

Both parents incubate the egg for approximately 78 days, with the male typically taking the first shift, which lasts two to three weeks. After hatching in early March, the chick is brooded by both parents for the first four to five weeks, after which it is left unattended for extended periods while the adults forage. There is no desertion period, and both parents continue to feed the chick throughout winter.

The fledging period lasts around 278 days, with chicks leaving the nest between mid-November and mid-December. Once fledged, juveniles spend several years at sea before returning to their natal colonies to seek mates and begin breeding, typically at nine to eleven years old. Some juvenile albatrosses forage in areas separate from adults, but their ranges overlap significantly.

Lifespan

The snowy albatross is one of the longest-lived birds, with an average lifespan of 30-40 years and some individuals exceeding 50 years in the wild. The oldest recorded individual reached over 60 years.

Survival rates vary depending on environmental conditions and human-related threats. Historically, adult snowy albatrosses had high survival rates due to their low natural predation risk. However, fisheries interactions, particularly longline fishing, have significantly impacted populations by increasing adult mortality. Climate change and shifting oceanic conditions also affect food availability, which can reduce juvenile survival rates. Due to their slow reproductive cycle, where individuals breed only every other year, population declines caused by human activities have long-term effects on species recovery. Conservation efforts focusing on bycatch mitigation and habitat protection are crucial for maintaining stable populations.

Diet

The snowy albatross primarily feeds on cephalopods (squid), fish, and crustaceans, with occasional consumption of jellyfish and carrion, including the remains of seabirds and marine mammals. It forages exclusively at sea, covering vast distances in search of food. Foraging occurs mainly by surface seizing, where the bird snatches prey from the water while gliding. Although capable of shallow diving, it is not well-adapted for deep underwater hunting. Some individuals have been observed making brief plunges from heights of 2-5 meters to catch prey just below the surface.

Unlike many seabirds that rely primarily on vision, the snowy albatross uses its highly developed sense of smell to detect prey over vast oceanic distances. Research has shown that it can follow odor plumes carried by the wind, allowing it to locate feeding areas where fish and squid are abundant. Upon detecting a scent, it zigzags upwind to home in on the source, a strategy that helps it efficiently find food that may not be immediately visible.

The species frequently follows fishing vessels, scavenging for discarded bycatch and fish waste. While this behavior provides an easy food source, it also increases the risk of entanglement in longline fishing gear, a significant cause of mortality. During the chick-rearing period, a single chick may consume up to 100 kilograms of food over the course of its development. Parents make long-distance foraging trips to provide a diet rich in squid and fish oil, which helps sustain the chick’s growth until fledging.

Culture

The snowy albatross has long been associated with sailors and maritime folklore, particularly due to its vast oceanic range and habit of following ships for days. Sailors historically believed that seeing an albatross meant good luck, as the birds were thought to carry the spirits of lost seafarers. However, harming or killing one was considered a bad omen, as it was believed to bring storms and misfortune.

In literature, the snowy albatross is immortalized in Samuel Taylor Coleridge’s poem “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner.” Though the species is not directly named, descriptions of a large, white-plumaged, far-ranging seabird align closely with D. exulans. In the poem, a sailor kills an albatross, bringing a curse upon his ship, leading to the phrase “an albatross around one’s neck” – a metaphor for a lasting burden or guilt.

Among Indigenous cultures, the snowy albatross has been historically significant to the Maori of New Zealand, who used its bones for tools and ornaments, and its feathers for ceremonial garments. While the wandering habits of the species made it less directly involved in daily human interactions, its occasional presence in subantarctic regions contributed to its symbolism in seafaring cultures.

In modern times, the snowy albatross has become a flagship species for seabird conservation, with its plight symbolizing the dangers of longline fishing, climate change, and oceanic pollution. It remains a powerful symbol of freedom, endurance, and survival in the vast Southern Ocean.

Threats and conservation

The snowy albatross (Diomedea exulans) is currently classified as Vulnerable by the IUCN due to sustained population declines driven by human-induced threats. As of the latest estimates, the total number of mature individuals is approximately 20,000, with an annual breeding population of around 6,000 pairs. The largest populations are found on Prince Edward Island, Marion Island, South Georgia, the Crozet Islands, Kerguelen Islands, and Macquarie Island. While some colonies have remained stable in recent years, others, particularly on South Georgia, have shown long-term declines. On Bird Island, South Georgia, breeding numbers have dropped to historic lows, with 656 nesting pairs recorded in a recent year, the lowest ever documented at the site.

Threats

The most significant threat to the species is bycatch in longline fisheries, where snowy albatrosses are accidentally caught and drowned while attempting to scavenge baited hooks. This has led to a decrease in adult survival rates and juvenile recruitment, making it difficult for populations to recover given the species’ slow reproductive cycle. Climate change is also impacting the species by shifting oceanic temperatures and prey distribution, which can lead to food shortages, particularly for breeding birds that must forage long distances to feed their chicks.

Habitat disturbance, though less of a widespread threat, remains an issue in some colonies. Human activity, including research stations and tourism, can disrupt breeding sites, causing stress and nest abandonment. Additionally, marine pollution is an increasing concern, with individuals ingesting plastics and being exposed to pollutants that accumulate in the food chain.

Conservation efforts

To combat population declines, conservation measures have been implemented across the species’ range. Bycatch mitigation strategies have been introduced in fisheries operating within snowy albatross habitat, including the use of bird-scaring lines, weighted hooks, and night setting of fishing gear to prevent accidental captures. These efforts, backed by international agreements such as the Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels (ACAP), have helped reduce mortality rates, but compliance and enforcement remain challenges in some regions.

Breeding sites on key islands are now protected areas, limiting human disturbance and reducing the impact of invasive species. Long-term monitoring programs are in place to track population trends, assess breeding success, and identify emerging threats. Ongoing research is essential to ensure that conservation strategies remain effective and adaptable to the species’ changing environment. Despite these efforts, continued declines in some populations highlight the need for sustained global cooperation to protect one of the world’s most iconic seabirds.

Similar species

The snowy albatross (Diomedea exulans) is part of the great albatross group, which includes some of the biggest flying birds. Several closely related species were once considered subspecies of D. exulans but have since been recognized as distinct due to differences in size, plumage, range, and genetic data. These species share many physical traits and overlapping habitats, often making identification challenging.

Tristan albatross (Diomedea dabbenena)

The Tristan albatross is the most similar species to the snowy albatross, having been classified as its subspecies until genetic studies confirmed its distinction. It is slightly smaller in size, with a wingspan averaging around 3 meters, compared to the snowy albatross’s 3.5-3.7 meters. While plumage is nearly identical, some individuals have darker feathers on the upper wings. Unlike the snowy albatross, which breeds on multiple islands across the Southern Ocean, the Tristan albatross is restricted to Gough Island in the South Atlantic, making location a key differentiator.

Antipodean albatross (Diomedea antipodensis)

The Antipodean albatross is another former subspecies of D. exulans, but it is generally smaller and darker. Its wingspan is slightly shorter, and males tend to have more brown coloration on their upper wings compared to snowy albatross males, which are whiter with age. It breeds primarily in the New Zealand subantarctic islands, particularly on Antipodes and Campbell Islands, whereas the snowy albatross has a more widespread breeding range. Foraging habits are also somewhat different, as Antipodean albatrosses tend to favor warmer waters at lower latitudes.

Amsterdam albatross (Diomedea amsterdamensis)

The Amsterdam albatross is the rarest of the great albatrosses, with a population of fewer than 100 mature individuals, all confined to Amsterdam Island in the Indian Ocean. It is smaller than the snowy albatross, with a darker brown back and upper wings that remain throughout adulthood, while D. exulans males progressively become whiter. The Amsterdam albatross also has a shorter, stockier bill and a more restricted foraging range, rarely traveling as far as D. exulans.

Southern royal albatross (Diomedea epomophora)

The southern royal albatross is often confused with the snowy albatross due to its similar size and wingspan. However, it can be distinguished by its entirely white upper wings, whereas snowy albatrosses retain black flight feathers even in adulthood. The southern royal albatross breeds primarily on New Zealand’s Campbell and Auckland Islands, whereas the snowy albatross nests across multiple subantarctic islands in the Southern Ocean. While their feeding and gliding behaviors are similar, southern royal albatrosses typically forage closer to New Zealand, whereas snowy albatrosses cover broader oceanic ranges.

Future outlook

The snowy albatross stands as one of the most remarkable seabirds, embodying endurance, adaptability, and the vast, untamed spirit of the Southern Ocean. However, despite its mastery of wind and waves, this species faces growing challenges due to human activity, from longline fishing to climate-driven changes in its marine habitat. At Planet of Birds, we recognize the snowy albatross as a flagship species for ocean conservation. Its declining numbers serve as a warning about the broader health of our oceans and the urgent need for stronger protections. We remain hopeful that continued conservation efforts, driven by research, policy changes, and public awareness, will ensure that future generations will continue to witness these magnificent birds soaring over the world’s wildest seas.

Further reading:

• G. A. Nevitt, M. Losekoot, H. Weimerskirch (2008). Evidence for Olfactory Search in Wandering Albatross, Diomedea Exulans. PNAS, Biological Sciences. Volume 105, Issue 12.
• A. Terauds, R. Gales, G. B. Baker, R. Alderman (2006). Population and Survival Trends of Wandering Albatrosses (Diomedea Exulans) Breeding on Macquarie Island. Emu – Austral Ornithology, Volume 106, Issue 3.
• H. Weimerskirch, N. Brothers, P. Jouventin (1997). Population Dynamics of Wandering Albatross Diomedea Exulans and Amsterdam Albatross D. Amsterdamensis in the Indian Ocean and Their Relationships With Long-Line Fisheries: Conservation Implications. Biological Conservation.
• W. L. N. Tickell (1968). The Biology of the Great Albatrosses, Diomedea Exulans and Diomedea Epomophora. Antarctic Bird Studies, Volume 12.