Philippine eagle (Pithecophaga jefferyi): One of the world’s rarest raptors

The Philippine eagle (Pithecophaga jefferyi) is a large, forest-dwelling raptor endemic to the Philippines and one of the rarest eagles in the world. As an apex predator, it plays a crucial role in maintaining the ecological balance of the country’s primary forests, relying on its elongated crest, broad wings, and strong talons to hunt arboreal prey.

Once more widespread, the species has suffered severe population declines due to deforestation, hunting, and habitat fragmentation, with an estimated 392 breeding pairs remaining in the wild. Now restricted to fragmented forests on Luzon, Mindanao, Leyte, and Samar, its survival depends on continued habitat protection, stricter enforcement against poaching, and ongoing breeding programs.

Discovery

The Philippine eagle was first documented by English explorer and naturalist John Whitehead in 1896 while traveling in Samar, one of the species’ native islands. Although indigenous communities across the Philippines were long familiar with the bird, Whitehead was the first to observe it scientifically. His servant, Juan, collected the first specimen, which was later sent to London for examination. That same year, William Robert Ogilvie-Grant, an ornithologist at the British Museum, formally described the species.

Upon its scientific recognition, the eagle was initially named the monkey-eating eagle due to reports from locals in Bonga, Samar, that it preyed exclusively on monkeys. This belief influenced its scientific name, Pithecophaga jefferyi, derived from the Greek words pithecus (“monkey”) and phagus (“eater”). The species name jefferyi was chosen in honor of John Whitehead’s father, Jeffery Whitehead. However, later ecological studies revealed that the bird’s diet was more varied, including colugos, snakes, monitor lizards, and large birds such as hornbills. Due to this broader diet and to distinguish it from other so-called “monkey-eating eagles” in Africa and South America, President Ferdinand Marcos officially renamed it the Philippine eagle in 1978.

The bird is also known by various indigenous names in Philippine languages. These include banoy and agila in Tagalog, manaul or manaol in Visayan languages, tipule in Subanen, and mam-boogook or malamboogook in Manobo, Klata, Tagabawa, Mandaya, and Kalagan. Some of these names are also used for other large birds of prey. In modern Filipino, the eagle is often referred to as haribon, a portmanteau of “haring ibon” (“bird king”).

The Philippine eagle’s taxonomic placement has undergone significant revision. In 1919, a study of its skeletal features suggested a close relationship with the harpy eagle (Harpia harpyja), leading to its classification within the Harpiinae subfamily. However, a 2005 DNA study challenged this view, instead linking the species to snake eagles (Circaetinae), particularly the bateleur (Terathopius ecaudatus). This genetic analysis led to the Philippine eagle being reclassified within Circaetinae, separating it from the large forest eagles of the Americas. These findings suggest a more distant evolutionary lineage, emphasizing unique adaptations to its island environment.

Identification

The Philippine eagle is one of the largest and most powerful eagles in the world, distinguished by its exceptional size, robust build, and striking plumage. Adults typically measure between 86 and 102 centimeters (2.8-3.3 feet) in total length, though studies of museum specimens indicate an average of 95 centimeters (3.1 feet) for males and 105 centimeters (3.4 feet) for females. The longest recorded individual, a captive specimen, measured 112 centimeters (3.7 feet). The species has a wingspan ranging from 184 to 220 centimeters (6-7.2 feet), relatively short compared to other large eagles adapted to open environments but broad enough to provide the lift necessary for navigating dense forest canopies.

Adult males typically weigh 4.5 kilograms (9.9 pounds), while females average around 6.0 kilograms (13.2 pounds), with some reports reaching 8.0 kilograms (17.6 pounds). While the female is generally larger, the size difference is estimated at around 10%, which is less pronounced than in some other large raptors where females can be over 20% heavier than males.

The plumage of the Philippine eagle is highly distinctive. It has a dark brown back that contrasts with a white underside and underwings. The nape and crown are covered with long, brown feathers, forming a shaggy, mane-like crest that enhances its imposing appearance. This crest, raised when the bird is alert or agitated, adds to its formidable presence. The beak is large, deep, and strongly arched, colored in a bluish-gray tone, capable of tearing through tough flesh and bone. The legs are yellow and thickly scaled, ending in dark, curved talons, among the most powerful of any bird of prey. The tail is relatively long, measuring between 42 and 50 centimeters (16.5 and 20 inches), aiding in maneuverability through dense forest.

One of its most striking features is its piercing blue-gray eyes, which provide exceptional vision for spotting prey. The eagle’s gaze is intense, contributing to its reputation as a formidable apex predator. When the nictitating membrane (a translucent third eyelid) closes over the eye, the bird takes on an eerie, almost lifeless stare. This membrane helps protect and lubricate the eye while hunting or flying through the thick forest canopy, reducing glare and shielding against debris.

Juvenile Philippine eagles closely resemble adults but have pale fringes on their upperpart feathers, giving them a slightly lighter and more mottled appearance. These pale markings gradually fade as the bird matures. The transition to full adult plumage occurs over several years, during which the young eagle progressively develops its distinctive crest, deeper beak coloration, and more defined contrast between its dark face and pale crown.

Vocalization

The Philippine eagle produces a range of vocalizations, primarily consisting of loud, high-pitched whistles that often end with slight variations in pitch. These calls serve multiple functions, including territorial advertisement, communication between mates, and food-begging by juveniles.

Listen to the Philippine eagle calls:

Males are especially vocal during the pre-laying and nest-building period, frequently calling from prominent perches or while soaring over their territory. These vocalizations become more intense during courtship, often accompanied by aerial displays and prey exchanges. Before and during copulation, males emit rapid, excited calls that subside immediately afterward.

Juvenile Philippine eagles produce high-pitched begging calls, particularly when an adult arrives with food. As the nestling grows, these calls become louder and more persistent, peaking in frequency as the eaglet nears fledging. Once out of the nest, fledglings continue to call for food, relying on their parents for provisioning until they become fully independent.

In territorial and defensive contexts, both male and female eagles use prolonged whistles to assert their presence and ward off potential intruders. If a perceived threat approaches the nest, the adults may emit shorter, more aggressive calls. These vocalizations play a crucial role in maintaining the pair bond, securing a breeding territory, and ensuring communication between parents and offspring.

Range

The Philippine eagle is endemic to the Philippines, with its distribution restricted to the islands of Mindanao, Luzon, Samar, and Leyte. Historically, its range was likely broader, but deforestation and human activity have drastically reduced its extent.

Mindanao supports the largest and most stable population, with an estimated 233 breeding pairs. The populations on Luzon, Samar, and Leyte are significantly smaller, with recent estimates suggesting up to 128 pairs on Luzon and around 31 pairs between Samar and Leyte. While earlier records documented only a single confirmed breeding pair in Apayao, recent surveys indicate that the Sierra Madre and Cordillera ranges may support a larger but unconfirmed population.

The species is closely tied to forest habitats, primarily occurring in primary dipterocarp forests from lowland areas up to 1,800 meters (5,900 feet) above sea level. It is typically found in steep and mountainous terrain, which provides both nesting and foraging opportunities. While Mindanao retains significant tracts of suitable habitat, the remaining forest on the other islands is highly fragmented, making the long-term viability of those smaller populations uncertain.

Migration

The Philippine eagle is a non-migratory species, with movements largely restricted to its territorial and foraging range. However, juvenile eagles disperse from their natal territories after independence, seeking new areas to establish themselves. This dispersal period is particularly dangerous, as young eagles venturing beyond protected forests frequently face threats such as hunting, electrocution, and habitat loss.

Recent GPS telemetry studies have shown that eagles do not move seasonally but adjust their foraging behavior based on habitat availability, sometimes venturing into secondary forests and agricultural landscapes. This shift suggests that habitat fragmentation is forcing some individuals to explore suboptimal areas in search of food, increasing their vulnerability to human-related threats.

Habitat

The Philippine eagle is a highly territorial species, requiring large, undisturbed forests to survive. Studies indicate that each breeding pair occupies an average range of 110 square kilometers (42 square miles), with at least 68 square kilometers (26 square miles) of continuous forest cover required to sustain them. Within this range, eagles establish core territories, which they defend aggressively from intruding individuals.

The species is primarily found in primary dipterocarp forests, where it nests in tall emergent trees that offer a broad canopy and sufficient structural support. While these forests provide ideal conditions, Philippine eagles have also been observed in secondary forests, riparian gallery forests, and fragmented landscapes, particularly when searching for food. However, these areas are not suitable for nesting, and increased reliance on degraded habitats exposes eagles to higher risks from human activity.

Tracking data reveals that adult eagles show strong site fidelity, remaining within their home ranges year-round and rarely moving beyond 2 to 18 kilometers (1.2 to 11 miles) from their core areas. Most of their movements occur outside their core nesting zones, indicating that foraging often extends into disturbed landscapes. This behavior is likely a response to habitat fragmentation, as the loss of continuous forest forces eagles to expand their hunting range.

Despite their adaptability, Philippine eagles remain highly vulnerable to habitat loss. Deforestation, agricultural expansion, and land conversion continue to threaten their remaining habitats. The increasing presence of eagles in secondary forests and agricultural landscapes highlights the urgent need for landscape-wide conservation strategies, including habitat corridors to maintain connectivity between remaining forested areas.

Behavior

The Philippine eagle is a solitary and highly territorial apex predator, having evolved in an environment largely free from competition with other large raptors. As the dominant hunter in Philippine forests, it occupies the highest position in the food chain, with no natural predators. Its behavior is shaped by its need to secure large hunting territories, locate prey in dense tropical forests, and maintain a lifelong monogamous bond with a mate.

Philippine eagles are primarily forest-adapted ambush predators, relying on their keen eyesight, powerful flight, and strong talons to capture prey. They spend long periods perched motionless in the canopy, scanning for movement before launching a swift attack. Their flight is notably fast and agile, resembling that of smaller hawks rather than the slow, soaring movement typical of other large eagles. Their wings are broad but relatively short, an adaptation that allows them to maneuver efficiently through dense tree cover. Unlike some other large raptors, they do not scavenge and exclusively hunt live prey, which includes mammals, birds, and reptiles. Hunting occurs primarily at dawn and late afternoon, following a bimodal activity pattern to coincide with the movement of prey.

As territorial birds, Philippine eagles defend their range aggressively. Pairs maintain exclusive territories averaging 110 square kilometers (42 square miles), with the nearest breeding pairs recorded at a minimum of 13 kilometers (8.1 miles) apart. Within their range, they communicate using loud, high-pitched whistles, particularly during territorial disputes or when reinforcing pair bonds. Physical displays, such as raised crests, outstretched wings, and swooping flights, serve as additional signals to deter intruders.

Despite their formidable hunting skills, young Philippine eagles require an extended period of learning before becoming independent hunters. Juveniles have been observed engaging in play behavior, such as gripping tree knotholes with their talons, hanging upside down, and attacking inanimate objects, seemingly practicing their balance and coordination. Interestingly, these activities occur without direct parental supervision, suggesting that young eagles develop their hunting instincts through self-directed learning rather than active teaching by adults.

While Philippine eagles have no direct competitors within their range, they share forests with other large raptors, such as Brahminy kites (Haliastur indus) and Philippine serpent eagles (Spilornis holospilus), which primarily feed on smaller prey and do not pose a significant threat to the eagle’s dominance. However, habitat destruction and human activity have disrupted the species’ natural behaviors, forcing some individuals to hunt in degraded areas where they face greater risks.

Breeding

The Philippine eagle is monogamous, forming lifelong pair bonds. Once paired, a male and female remain together, defending a shared territory and raising their young cooperatively. If one partner dies, the surviving eagle may seek out a new mate. Breeding occurs once every two years, as each chick requires extended parental care before reaching independence. The species’ prolonged breeding cycle makes it one of the slowest-reproducing raptors in the world, comparable to the harpy eagle and crowned eagle (Stephanoaetus coronatus).

The timing of breeding varies between populations. On Mindanao, nesting typically begins between September and December, while on Luzon, breeding activity may start earlier or later depending on local environmental conditions. Factors such as rainfall and prey availability are believed to influence the timing of egg-laying.

Courtship and mating

Courtship displays play a crucial role in pair bonding and mate selection. Pairs engage in aerial courtship rituals, including synchronized soaring, mutual talon presentation, and pursuit flights. During diagonal diving chases, the male pursues the female in a rapid descent before leveling out. Another notable display involves the male presenting his talons toward the female’s back, prompting her to flip midair and extend her own talons in response. These interactions reinforce their bond before copulation.

Nest-building marks the beginning of the breeding process. Both sexes participate in gathering nesting materials, and an eagle’s readiness to breed is signaled by frequent carrying of leaves and sticks to the nest site. Copulation takes place multiple times, both at the nest and on nearby perches, ensuring successful fertilization.

Nesting and egg incubation

Philippine eagles construct large platform nests in the highest trees within their territory, typically choosing emergent dipterocarps or other tall trees with broad crowns. Nests are built at heights of 30 meters (98 feet) or more above the ground and are lined with fresh green leaves, which may serve hygienic or insulating purposes. Eagles often reuse the same nest over multiple breeding cycles, making repairs and enlarging it over time.

Females experience a pre-laying phase known as egg lethargy, in which they become inactive, drink more water, and hold their wings droopingly for several days before laying. A single egg is typically laid, though in rare cases, two eggs have been reported. If the first egg fails to hatch or the chick dies early, the pair may attempt to reproduce again the following year.

The incubation period lasts 58 to 68 days (typically 62 days). Both parents participate in incubation, though the female assumes primary responsibility, particularly at night. The male provides food throughout this period, ensuring the female remains well-nourished while guarding the egg.

Hatching, fledging, and parental care

Once hatched, the eaglet is completely dependent on parental care. Both parents provide food, tearing prey into smaller pieces before feeding the chick. The male continues to hunt and deliver prey, while the female broods and feeds the young during the early weeks. Parents also shade the nestling from harsh sunlight and rain, a behavior observed until the chick reaches about seven weeks old.

The nestling period lasts approximately 160 days (5 to 6 months) before the eaglet fledges. Even after leaving the nest, juveniles remain dependent on their parents, learning essential hunting skills. The earliest recorded kill by a young Philippine eagle occurred 304 days after hatching, highlighting the species’ extended developmental period. The parents continue to care for the fledgling for up to 20 months, during which they provide food and gradually reduce feeding as the juvenile becomes independent. Because of this long dependency period, successful pairs can only breed once every two years, further limiting population recovery.

The Philippine eagle’s slow reproductive rate, large territorial requirements, and reliance on long-term parental care make it highly vulnerable to population declines. Habitat loss and human persecution disrupt breeding success, making conservation efforts critical to sustaining wild populations.

Lifespan

The Philippine eagle is estimated to live between 30 and 60 years in the wild, though actual longevity is likely shorter due to environmental pressures, human threats, and disease. In captivity, individuals have been recorded living at least 41 to 46 years, with the longest known lifespan observed at the Philippine Eagle Center (PEC) in Davao City. Like other large raptors, the species has a slow reproductive rate, making adult survival critical for maintaining stable populations.

Mortality factors

The Philippine eagle faces multiple threats, both in the wild and in captivity. A retrospective study of eagle deaths from 1970 to 2006 at PEC found that among 36 wild-caught individuals, the most common causes of mortality were unknown causes (44.4%), infectious disease (25%), metabolic and nutritional disease (16.7%), and trauma (11.1%). One captive eagle, which had been in human care for 33 years, was diagnosed with squamous cell carcinoma, marking the first recorded cancer case in the species.

Infectious diseases, particularly aspergillosis, were a major contributor to eagle deaths. Aspergillosis is a fungal respiratory infection that thrives in humid environments and tends to affect birds under stress, such as those recovering from injury or adjusting to captivity. Renal failure and nutritional deficiencies were also recorded, particularly in emaciated eagles rescued from the wild.

Trauma-related deaths included gunshot wounds, aggression from cage mates, and falling tree branches. Direct human-caused mortality remains a significant issue, particularly for juveniles during their dispersal period. Young eagles leaving their parents’ territory frequently cross open landscapes and venture into human settlements, making them more vulnerable to hunting, trapping, and accidental electrocution. In 2004, the first captive-released Philippine eagle, Kabayan, was electrocuted after landing on a power pole in Mt. Apo National Park, highlighting the risks associated with reintroduction efforts.

Despite the widespread use of pesticides and environmental contaminants in the Philippines, there have been no confirmed cases of poisoning or heavy metal toxicosis in Philippine eagles. However, systematic testing for toxins has never been conducted, leaving open the possibility that some eagle deaths may have been linked to environmental pollutants. The species’ exclusive reliance on live prey rather than scavenging may reduce the risk of secondary poisoning from contaminated carcasses.

Mortality is higher during the breeding season (July to January), when eagle activity increases, making them more visible to potential hunters. This period also coincides with juvenile dispersal, when newly fledged eagles attempt to establish their own territories. The survival of young eagles is particularly low, as they often encounter human settlements, deforested areas, and open landscapes where they are more exposed to threats.

The combination of slow reproduction, high juvenile mortality, and human-related threats makes the conservation of adult breeding pairs critical for sustaining the wild population. Protection of large, undisturbed forested territories and mitigation of human-related dangers, such as electrocution prevention and stronger anti-poaching efforts, are essential for improving the species’ survival prospects.

Diet

The Philippine eagle is an apex predator with a diverse diet, feeding on a wide range of prey depending on availability. Arboreal mammals, particularly the Philippine flying lemur, make up a significant portion of its diet, with some studies estimating that in certain areas of Mindanao, this species alone constitutes up to 90% of the eagle’s food intake. However, prey composition varies by region. On Luzon, where flying lemurs are absent, the eagle primarily hunts long-tailed macaques and giant cloud rats.

Other mammals such as civets, squirrels, flying squirrels, rodents, and even young Philippine deer are occasionally taken. Birds, including hornbills, owls, and hawks, also form part of the diet, while reptiles such as monitor lizards, pit vipers, rat snakes, and Philippine cobras have been recorded as prey. Opportunistically, the eagle has been observed capturing domestic animals such as chickens, cats, dogs, and piglets, particularly in areas where natural prey populations have declined due to habitat loss.

Prey selection is influenced by size and behavior, with documented cases of the eagle taking animals ranging from small bats weighing just 10 grams (0.35 ounces) to juvenile deer weighing 14 kilograms (30.9 pounds). The hunting of large prey such as macaques presents challenges, as adult males can weigh up to 9 kilograms (19.8 pounds) and are capable of strong resistance. In at least one recorded incident, a Philippine eagle sustained a broken leg while subduing a macaque, highlighting the risks associated with tackling large and powerful prey.

Foraging behavior

Philippine eagles employ different hunting strategies depending on their environment and prey. The two primary techniques observed are still-hunting and perch-hunting. In still-hunting, the eagle remains motionless on a high perch, scanning for movement below before launching a sudden attack. This method is particularly effective for catching prey that relies on camouflage or remains stationary for long periods. In perch-hunting, the eagle moves from branch to branch, gradually descending through the tree canopy while searching for prey. If no opportunity arises, it circles back up to the canopy and repeats the process.

Pairs have occasionally been observed engaging in cooperative hunting, particularly when targeting monkey troops. One eagle distracts the primates by making its presence known, while the other swoops in from behind to ambush an unsuspecting individual. This strategy increases the likelihood of a successful hunt, particularly against highly alert prey that relies on group vigilance.

Once captured, prey is often decapitated before being carried to the nest. Larger prey, such as flying lemurs and civets, may be dismembered before being delivered, while smaller animals such as birds or reptiles are often swallowed whole. Eagles have been observed removing uneaten remains from the nest, likely to prevent the buildup of decaying food and reduce the risk of attracting parasites.

The eagle’s strong reliance on arboreal, nocturnal mammals ties its survival closely to the presence of intact forest ecosystems. As deforestation continues to shrink its habitat, there is evidence that some individuals are expanding their diet to include more terrestrial prey and domestic animals. This shift not only indicates the species’ adaptability but also increases the likelihood of human-wildlife conflicts in areas where eagles venture beyond forest boundaries in search of food.

Culture

The Philippine eagle holds a unique and prestigious status in the Philippines, symbolizing strength, resilience, and national pride. Due to its rarity, size, and presence as the country’s top predator, it has long been revered in both modern culture and traditional beliefs.

Officially declared the national bird of the Philippines on July 4, 1995, under Proclamation No. 615 by President Fidel V. Ramos, the Philippine eagle replaced the maya (Lonchura atricapilla), a small and common bird, as the country’s national avian emblem. The change was meant to reflect the nation’s determination to protect its natural heritage, as the eagle is endemic to the country and critically endangered.

The Philippine eagle has been featured in stamps, coins, and banknotes, emphasizing its cultural and symbolic importance. It appeared on 50-sentimo coins from 1983 to 1994 and on multiple commemorative issues, including a 500-Piso silver coin in 2018 and the 5,000-Piso Lapulapu banknote in 2021. Most notably, in 2021, the Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas unveiled the new 1,000-Piso polymer banknote featuring the eagle, replacing images of historical World War II heroes. While this change sparked controversy, it reaffirmed the eagle’s status as a powerful national symbol.

Beyond its official recognition, the Philippine eagle has been incorporated into sports and national identity. It served as the mascot “Gilas” for the 2005 Southeast Asian Games held in Manila and continues to be the emblem of the Philippines men’s national basketball team, Gilas Pilipinas.

Historically, the eagle’s presence in Philippine folklore and indigenous traditions is not as extensively documented as that of other native species. However, in some indigenous cultures, large raptors were often seen as spiritual guardians or messengers of the gods, associated with protection, leadership, and the sky realm. The eagle’s dominance in the forest and its rarity further enhance its mystique, reinforcing its role as a creature of power and prestige.

Threats and conservation

The Philippine eagle is one of the most endangered eagles in the world, classified as Critically Endangered by the IUCN since 1994. The most recent estimates suggest a global population of approximately 392 breeding pairs, or around 784 mature individuals. While this estimate is slightly higher than previous assessments, the species remains at high risk due to slow reproduction, habitat loss, and human-related threats. The majority of the remaining population is found on Mindanao, with smaller and increasingly vulnerable groups on Luzon, Samar, and Leyte. The eagle requires vast territories – up to 110 square kilometers (42 square miles) per breeding pair, making it particularly sensitive to deforestation and environmental degradation.

Threats

The primary threat to the Philippine eagle is deforestation, driven by logging, agricultural expansion, and mining. The latest studies estimate that only 28,624 square kilometers (11,000 square miles) of suitable habitat remains, with most of the remaining lowland forests leased to logging concessions. Although 67% of the species’ range falls within Key Biodiversity Areas (KBAs), only 32.4% of suitable habitat is officially protected, leaving a significant portion vulnerable to land conversion. Forest loss not only reduces nesting sites but also fragments the species’ range, making it harder for eagles to establish breeding territories.

Hunting, poaching, and accidental trapping continue to threaten the species, despite national protection laws. Philippine eagles are sometimes shot by farmers who see them as threats to livestock, while juveniles are particularly vulnerable to snares and hunting traps meant for wild pigs and deer. Poaching for the illegal wildlife trade was historically a major issue, with many eagles captured for zoos and private collections, though this has declined in recent years. However, deliberate killings remain a persistent problem – several released and rehabilitated eagles have been shot and killed within months of returning to the wild.

Another growing concern is electrocution from power lines, particularly in areas where forests have been cleared. This threat has been highlighted by multiple fatalities, including the first reintroduced eagle, Kabayan, in 2005, and additional cases documented in recent years. While no confirmed instances of pesticide poisoning have been recorded, the long-term impact of pollutants on eagle reproduction and health remains unknown.

The species also faces challenges during juvenile dispersal, when young eagles leave their natal territories and search for their own range. Dispersal often brings them into conflict with humans, and studies suggest that many do not survive long enough to establish territories. Low recruitment into the adult population poses a serious risk to the species’ long-term survival.

Conservation efforts

Conservation efforts for the Philippine eagle have been ongoing since the late 1960s, with the first official Monkey-Eating Eagle Conservation Program launched in 1969. This later evolved into the Philippine Eagle Foundation (PEF), which remains the leading organization working to protect the species.

One of the most significant conservation strategies has been captive breeding and reintroduction. The first Philippine eagles were successfully bred in captivity in 1992, and by 2025, a total of 31 eagles have been bred in captivity. Despite this progress, reintroduction efforts have faced challenges, as several released individuals have been shot, electrocuted, or failed to establish territories. The most recent attempt at reintroducing eagles occurred in Leyte in 2024, where two rescued, non-paired eagles were released. The project faced a setback when the male, Uswag, drowned at sea, but the female, Carlito, survived and is actively hunting in the area.

Habitat protection has been a key focus, with protected areas established for the species, including Cabuaya Forest (700 square kilometers) and Taft Forest Wildlife Sanctuary (37.2 square kilometers) on Samar. However, a large proportion of the eagle’s range remains unprotected, particularly on Mindanao, where most of the population resides. Key conservation areas identified for protection include Mount Hilong-Hilong, Mount Kampalili, Mount Apo, and the Mount Latian complex on Mindanao; Apayao Lowland Forest, Sierra Madre, and Zambales Mountains on Luzon; and Mount Nacolod on Leyte and Samar.

In 2019, the Philippine government launched the Philippine Eagle Diplomacy program, with two eagles, Geothermica and Sambisig, loaned to Singapore’s Jurong Bird Park as part of an international breeding collaboration. This program was intended to raise global awareness and establish a backup population in captivity. However, Geothermica died in 2022, and his body was taxidermied for display at the National Museum of the Philippines. Sambisig remains in Singapore, and conservation groups are evaluating the possibility of sending a new mate.

Ongoing research continues to play a vital role in conservation. Satellite tracking and telemetry studies have provided valuable data on home range size, habitat use, and juvenile dispersal patterns, informing future conservation strategies. Recent studies emphasize the need for expanded protected areas, stronger anti-poaching measures, and public education to reduce human-wildlife conflict. Without sustained intervention, the Philippine eagle remains at risk of continued decline, making conservation action critical for its survival.

Similar species

Although the Philippine eagle (Pithecophaga jefferyi) is a highly distinctive species with no close relatives, it shares some morphological and ecological similarities with two other forest-dwelling raptors found in nearby regions.

Papuan eagle (Harpyopsis novaeguineae)

The Papuan eagle, also known as the New Guinea eagle, is the most similar species in both appearance and ecological role. It is native to the rainforests of New Guinea, which are geographically close to the Philippines. Like the Philippine eagle, it has a large, powerful build, broad wings adapted for maneuvering through dense forests, and a shaggy crest that gives it a distinctive appearance. Both species are apex predators in their respective habitats, specializing in hunting arboreal mammals, birds, and reptiles. However, the Papuan eagle is slightly smaller and less robust, with a narrower beak and shorter tail.

Changeable hawk-eagle (Nisaetus cirrhatus)

The changeable hawk-eagle is another raptor found in the Philippines and other parts of Southeast Asia, and it shares some visual similarities with the Philippine eagle, particularly its crested head and forest-dwelling habits. It is much smaller and more slender, with a narrower beak and weaker talons, making it an unsuitable comparison in terms of power and hunting ability. While it primarily preys on small birds, reptiles, and mammals, it does not compete with the Philippine eagle in hunting larger prey. Due to its size difference, it is not likely to be confused with the Philippine eagle, but it does occupy similar forested habitats within the country.

Future outlook

The Philippine eagle remains one of the world’s rarest eagles, with fewer than 800 mature individuals left in the wild. While conservation efforts have achieved important milestones, including captive breeding, research, and habitat protection, the species continues to face severe threats from deforestation, hunting, and habitat fragmentation. Protected areas cover only a fraction of its required range, and juvenile survival rates remain low, limiting natural population recovery. Captive breeding offers hope, but successful reintroduction remains a challenge as released birds often fall victim to poaching or electrocution. Without stronger habitat conservation policies, better law enforcement, and increased public awareness, the Philippine eagle’s future remains uncertain.

Despite these challenges, there is still a path to recovery. The dedication of conservationists, researchers, and local communities proves that the species can be saved with sustained action. Expanding protected areas, strengthening conservation laws, and fostering coexistence between eagles and local communities will be crucial to ensuring its survival. At Planet of Birds, we believe that safeguarding the Philippine eagle is not just about saving a single species, but about protecting the Philippines’ rich biodiversity for future generations. With continued effort, we hope to see this magnificent bird soaring through the skies for years to come.

Further reading

• 16 of the world’s rarest eagles, and why they’re in danger